photo: a. popović, war album 1914–1918Montenegrin battery in firing position
Anyone who had the privilege to climb the upper part of the Kotor fortress to the castle of St. Ivan/San Giovanni, would he not have enjoyed the scenes that surpass any Tolkien fantasy about Middle-earth, especially the view of the ruined and almost abandoned village of Špiljari under the city walls, he could have noticed the pedestals with the names of mainly Hungarian officers who left their bones in these areas during World War I.. We are talking about the army of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which in Kotor defended the "Seaside Fortress of Boka" from the attack of the Montenegrin Lovcen detachment, supported by French batteries of heavy artillery. After the collapse of Napoleon's empire, the victorious powers redrew European borders at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The former possessions of the Republic of Venice on the coast of the Adriatic Sea were assigned to the Habsburg Monarchy, which enabled it to develop a navy and supporting infrastructure throughout the 19th century. After the loss of Venice and its hinterland, leading to the final unification of Italy in 1866, the main naval bases became Pula and Boka Kotorska.
How century-old Venetian and Ottoman forts in the area Bay of Kotor could not meet the needs of modern warfare, embarked on a multi-decade endeavor, the result of which is described in this way by retired lieutenant colonel Radojica Pavićević, the best expert on this fortification system: "Before the First World War, the fortress of Boka Kotorska was composed of: nine fortified towns, four armored forts, 28 forts of various sizes and purposes, four barrier fortresses, nine battery fords, two torpedo batteries, two flanking batteries, 13 barrier fortifications, 22 batteries of semi-permanent type, 20 watchtowers, about 20 barracks (defensive, gendarmerie, city, guard, etc.), four ships as fortified firing points and extremely large infrastructure such as: water, roads, railways, airports, arsenal, hospitals, cemeteries, warehouses, workshops, warehouses, schools, signal stations and radio stations".
source: private collectionFrench war postcard
A narrow-gauge railway was built from Gabela in Herzegovina to Zelenika in the bay of Novlja. It was opened for traffic in 1901, and today's Pet Danica promenade in Herzegnov was laid out and arranged precisely for the needs of that railway. Thus, the conditions were created so that coal, ammunition and other supplies for warships could be delivered to the fleet docks as quickly and efficiently as possible. It is interesting that Gabelo (a small town between Metković and Čapljina in the Neretva valley) was named by the Mexican philologist Roberto Salinas based on the linguistic analysis of Homer's epic The Iliad marked as the location of ancient Troy. Although this hypothesis is not supported by any conclusion of modern science, it is only one of a series of examples of how bizarre theories can bring to a certain place, at least temporarily, fame and the flourishing of tourism - which is not the only case in the territory Of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The repair facility in Tivat, better known as the Arsenal, began operating in 1889 and operated until 2007, when it was sold and Porto Montenegro, a fashionable marina for wealthy yachts, was built in its place. The first official name was "Seearsenal Pola - Filiale Teodo" (Naval arsenal Pula - branch Tivat) and accordingly, in the first years of work, most of the masters came from Istria, i.e. from the Pula arsenal, the first modern naval shipyard on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. After the Second World War, the Institute was named after the national hero Sava Kovačević and experienced the greatest expansion - over 1500 workers earned their bread there. Highly valued workers could also be found there, such as underwater welders and engineers for the overhaul of the most sensitive combat systems on warships. Today, Porto Montenegro needs a far different workforce profile, which shows how disastrous the deindustrialization that followed the breakup of the former Yugoslavia was for all of us.
PILLARS OF DEFENSE
There is no space in this text to mention all the fortifications in the area of the Bay of Kotor, but we will mention a few more significant ones. The very entrance to the bay was defended by three forts, the first on Cape Oštro (far better known as Prevlaka), which gained relevance with the beginning of the so-called "war for peace", when the troops of the Operational Group JNA they are trying to take Dubrovnik. In 1992, the UN observation mission arrived there and stayed in the fortress for a whole decade. Today, it represents the southernmost point of Croatia, which is a consequence of the extremely illogical decision from 1939 that Banovina Hrvatska gets control over the entrance to the Bay of Kotorska. The second fort on the island of Lastavica, which today bears the name Mamula, after the Austrian general of Serbian origin Lazar Mamula, who distinguished himself in the battles during the Hungarian revolution of 1848-1849. Then, among other things, he managed to repulse the Hungarian attacks on Sremske Karlovci, which is why he received the title of baron. He later became a governor Dalmatia and that's when the construction of the fortress that still bears his name began. During the Second World War, the fortress was home to an Italian concentration camp, but even that was not enough to avoid the fate of being converted into an exclusive hotel, without any respect for the victims who died there. On the opposite side, at the very tip of the Luštica peninsula, at the same time as Mamula, the Arza fort was built, which was sold to a Russian-Serbian consortium in 2005 with the idea of becoming a luxury resort, but it was not realized until today.
Španjola is a castle on Bajer Hill, which dominates Herceg Novi, and therefore the entrance to the entire bay. They built the first fortress Turks, but in 1538 the Christian fleet, which was mainly financed by the Spanish and commanded by the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria, occupied the city and began work on the site of the existing fortification. Already the following year, the Turks succeed in expelling the Spanish crew, which supposedly numbered 4000 soldiers, but the name of the Spaniards has stuck with the local population to this day. All subsequent masters of Novi continued to build on and remodel the fort according to their needs, so it became one of the pillars of the defense tactics of the Austro-Hungarian generals and admirals. The fortress was finally abandoned by the JNA in the years after World War II.
Vrmac and Goražda are considered to be the two most important fortresses during the First World War. They were originally built during the sixth decade of the 19th century, and the works from the end of the century are responsible for their present appearance. They represented key artillery points from which it was planned to attack enemy positions on the slopes of Lovćen. They were completely autonomous, with their own tanks of drinking water, aggregates for the production of electricity and everything else that meets the needs of their crews. Gorazde had a rotating steel dome weighing one hundred tons, under whose protection were the main cannons on the hills south and west of Kotor, i.e. east and southeast of Tivat. Approaching Vrmac, they guard the smaller forts Kavač and Škaljari, which today are completely devastated, unlike the Trojica castle, which is in much better condition.
With the beginning of the Great War, the only exit of the Central Powers to the Mediterranean was the Austro-Hungarian bases on the Adriatic Sea. From Boka Kotorska, the navy, especially submarines, could easily disrupt allied traffic in the Mediterranean, and the insufficiently equipped Montenegrin army was assigned the task of at least trying to disrupt the grouping and action of the enemy fleet. That task completely coincided with the centuries-old desire of Montenegro to "descend" to the shores of the "bride of the Adriatic". It soon became clear that the Lovcen detachment, which had 21 infantry battalions (9.500 men), 16 machine guns and a little over 30 cannons, did not have enough manpower and equipment to threaten the fortification system on its borders. Opposite stood a force of over 22.000 men, 116 machine guns and 238 guns of various calibers, not counting the firepower of the Austro-Hungarian fleet.
photo: Austrian National LibraryLight cruiser "Senta"
THE FRENCH ARE COMING
In the first weeks of the war, the French fleet makes a demonstrative incursion into the Adriatic Sea and manages to intercept the light cruiser "Senta" and the destroyer "Ulan" of the Austrian emperor and the Hungarian king. After the exchange of fire, the faster and smaller "Ulan" manages to escape while the "Senta", with a displacement of 2500 tons, badly damaged by French shells, disappears in the waves near the coast of Petrovac on the sea. 139 crew members managed to swim to the shore, where they were captured by members of the Montenegrin army and in whose captivity they would remain until the beginning of 1916.
Realizing that they cannot control the Austro-Hungarian fleet in Boka Kotorska without "eyes and ears" on the Montenegrin coast, the French admirals are constantly trying to increase their presence in the port of Bar. For this purpose, they install a wireless radio station and send two seaplanes to the only usable port under the sovereignty of King Nikola I Petrović. This was more than clear to their rivals in Pula, so the seaplanes were soon destroyed and the radio station was damaged, and it was relocated to Podgorica, where it would become a target for Austro-Hungarian aviation.
At the end of August, two companies of French naval infantry arrive, part of the international forces stationed in Shkodër, a city that was the dream of all rulers who ruled Cetinje. They were originally supposed to be part of a much larger Allied expeditionary force tasked with taking control of Boka. As that plan was abandoned, 200 marines remained at the court as an honor guard of King Nikola, until his escape from the country in January 1916.
On September 18 and 19, the steamship "Henri Fresine" entered the port of Bar, accompanied by the French Mediterranean fleet led by the cruiser "Leon Gambetta". It takes two days to unload the detachment of the captain of the frigate Grelier, which consists of two officers and 140 non-commissioned officers and soldiers with eight naval guns of 120 and 150 millimeter caliber. It took a month to transfer the batteries with the associated shells to the Kuk Pass, which, with its 1350 meters above sea level, dominated the Bay of Kotor and represented an ideal artillery position on the Montenegrin slopes of Lovćen. There was a narrow-gauge railway from the port of Bar to Virpazar, after which the cannons were transported by carts to Cetinje, while they were carried "on hand" to the already prepared positions. Montenegrin artillery awaits them there, which has been conducting artillery duels from its positions on Kuk, Krstac and Pestingrad since August. In addition to the mentioned Austro-Hungarian fortifications, the navy also takes part in the battles. The armored cruiser "Emperor Karlo VI" was anchored in the Tivat bay near the village of Krtola and from there it pounded the Montenegrin positions with its 240 millimeter guns. Soon the entire 5th Naval Division arrived, deploying ships along the coastal towns that today can be recognized by beach bars and fish restaurants. "Esar Franz Joseph I" withstood the attack while he was at Lepetan, "Panther" accepted the fight at the height of Ljuta and bombarded the positions on the Kuk, and "Sigetvar" was the target of the Montenegrin artillery while he was on the mooring at Stolivo.
photo: Austrian National LibraryBattleship Radetzky
With the arrival of the French artillerymen, the fighting gained intensity and coordination between the batteries. The main targets are the fortifications of Vrmac and Goražda, as well as warehouses within the overhaul institute in Tivat. Already on the first day, October 19, more than 100 shells fell on Vrmac, one cannon was destroyed and several soldiers were killed. It should be borne in mind that the French cannons were at 1350 meters above sea level, while the positions they were targeting were 900 meters below their feet. At certain moments, scouts of the dual monarchy who used balloons in Lepetani, seaplanes from Kumbor or were deployed on fortified observation posts, such as Radoštak, which from 1346 meters above sea level offered an ideal view of a good part of the bay, thought that the fortifications would not withstand such furious fire from Lovćen. To their aid comes the battleship "Radecki" with its 305 mm diameter main guns, which was named after Field Marshal Josef Radecki. Outside military circles, the field marshal is known for Johann Strauss's Radecki March, created in honor of his victories in northern Italy in 1848. The fighting reached its peak on October 23 when Vrmac was hit by 176 shells, its two 410 mm guns that made up the battery (which was symbolically called Montenegro) were disabled, and the water in the fortress cisterns was contaminated. The lieutenant of the battle board, Ernest Klein, described the fighting in the following words: "...Often a platoon of enemy bullets would hit, with deafening hilarity, one of the fords, which was immediately engulfed in smoke and flames."
source: Austrian National LibrarySegment of the Austro-Hungarian map of Boka Kotor
"IT'S TIME TO STOP THE VICTIMS"
Even the allied batteries did not pass without losses, because due to the nature of the terrain it was not possible to constantly change firing positions, so the Austro-Hungarian marksmen discovered the positions of the batteries over time. The French and Montenegrin cannons are one by one thrown out of action. One should not fall into the trap of Parisian illustrators, who, drawing a propaganda postcard of the battles, without delving too much into the geography of Montenegro, presented the effect of their artillery as a pleasant trip to the Adriatic coast. The weather suddenly worsens on October 26 - the rain does not stop and the cannon crews begin to suffer from the harsh autumn climate on Lovcen. In addition, the ammunition that could hardly be replaced is disappearing, and the captain of the frigate Grellis concludes one of his reports with the words: "It is time to stop with human sacrifices, which are fruitless in the given circumstances." This situation coincides with the mission of Rear Admiral Le Bon, sent from the command of the French Navy in Bordeaux to Montenegro in order to study the possibilities of allied liberation of Boka Kotorska. His conclusions are clear: without the engagement of a huge expeditionary fleet and army, it is not possible to master the southern coast of the Adriatic. The hopes of King Nikola that he will be greeted ceremonially under the walls of Kotor are coming to an end. The surviving French cannons were handed over to his army and the crews left the country, leaving only scouts who informed about the movements of the Austro-Hungarian fleet via a wireless radio station in Podgorica. The Lovcen front enters a state of rest and there will be no more serious clashes until its collapse in January 1916, when Franz Josef's soldiers finally took control of Lovcen and Cetinje, and Montenegro capitulated.
photo: private collectionKotor at the beginning of the 20th century
That's when the idea was born in Vienna to erect a colossal monument to the triumph of the Dual Monarchy on this "Gibraltar of the Adriatic" on the site of Njegoš's votive chapel, where he himself rested. The body of Peter II was transferred to the Cetinje Monastery in August 1916, and the chapel itself was partially destroyed. The monument was not erected until the end of the war, but the story of the chapel that broke the clouds does not end there. Today, Njegoš's unworthy descendants reduce his philosophical thought to a couple of quotes that, let's hope, they learn as folk proverbs and think that they can penetrate the soul of the last bishop ruler of the Cetinje Karst. Not to mention that, on the occasion of Njegoš's birthday, an animation appeared on the Belgrade Tower recently, dominated by a walnut that spins in a weightless state like children's candies in advertisements from the eighties. I'm a little ashamed to quote the verse that accompanied that "occasional" animation and which is a true indicator of the spirit of people who shamelessly use it as an excuse for new persecution of people and sowing of hatred, whose goal is only new and new robberies.
